Laura Mulvey’s “Visual pleasure and Narrative Cinema” uses psychoanalytic theory as a “political weapon” in order to survey the cinema, and specifically the classic Hollywood cinema, but more importantly to challenge several of its assumptions and its complicities with patriarchal systems, cultures and societies.
Mulvey starts by recognizing one of the main paradoxes of phallocentrism: its structural dependence of the figure of the “woman”, of the “castrated and lacking woman”. Only because women are constructed as synonyms for lack, disempowerment, and arrested development, men can stand for the privileged position of coherent and autonomous subjects, even powerful, and able to achieved sexual maturity. Here we can see how Judith Butler (1997) is on point when she argues that hegemonic male heterosexuality implies a paradoxical rejection of its purportedly object of desire, female bodies.
Mulvey also uses psychoanalytic theory because she thinks that sexism and phallocentrism are intimately related to the unconscious. She states a central question: “How to fight the unconscious structured like a language (formed critically at the moment of arrival of language) while still caught within the language of the patriarchy?” If for Audre Lorde (1984) the master’s tools will never dismantle the master’s house, apparently for Mulvey (and for several feminist film theorists) the master’s tools (of language and cinema) are practically the only way to (start to) dismantle the master’s house (the unconscious or the cinematic apparatus). In the words of Mulvey: “There is no way in which we can produce an alternative out of the blue, but we can begin to make a break by examining patriarchy within the tools it provides.” (p. 712).
If in the account of Mulvey the master’s tools are necessary to subversion, the master’s pleasures should be destroyed. In fact one a section of her classic essay is entitled “Destruction of Pleasure is a radical weapon”. Of course, Mulvey is speaking about male heterosexual pleasures, because at least in this essay the possibility of female (spectatorial) pleasures is foreclosed. The erotic pleasure in film is for Mulvey “visual pleasure”, and this pleasure structures the subordination of women. It is visual because it has an intimate relation with images, and also because it constructs women exclusively as passive objects of an active male gaze. Against this visual pleasure, Mulvey invites us to conceive of new languages of desire. Unfortunately, in this essay she doesn’t pursue her attempt to imagine other erotic languages or pleasures.
For Mulvey, “an active/passive heterosexual division of labour has controlled narrative structure” (p. 716). In this economy the man’s role is to make things happen, and the woman’s role is to be a spectacle in which things happen. But this is also related to spectatorial positions: “As the spectator identifies with the main male protagonist, he projects his look onto that of his like, his screen surrogate, so that the power of the male protagonist as he controls events coincides with the active power of the erotic look, both giving a satisfying sense of omnipotence.” (p. 716). In this sense, there are two male gazes, one a scopophilic gaze that objectifies the female body, the other a mimetic gaze that identifies with the male protagonist. Both gazes give a sensation of mastery and coherence to the male subject.
However, the female subject also represents a constant menace that the male gaze perennially attempts to repress. Her “lack” is constructed as a contagious element, a threat of castration and paradoxically of unpleasure. The panic that women generate in a phallocentric society have usually faced two responses: fetishism and voyeurism. Both disavow any recognition of lack in the male heterosexual subject.
This concern with lack is for Kaja Silverman (1988) characteristic of film theory itself; and Silverman like Mulvey associates this lack with male subjectivity. In “Lost Objects and Mistaken Subjects” Silverman argues that lack is structural to the apparition of the subject, and that lack structured the subject long before the recognition of sexual difference. In that sense, lack is characteristic of female and of male subjects. But this knowledge is denied and repressed, and women are produced as the only objects that should bear the heavy weight that represents lack. But the exteriority of lack in relation to male subjectivity is always menaced by the return of this repressed knowledge. In the words of Silverman: “It indicates that what is now associated with the female subject has been transferred to her from the male subject, and that this transfer is by no means irreversible.” (Silverman, p. 18). So, castration is not an external threat to the male subject, but a threat born within him. And the only way in which this knowledge can be disavowed is via the constant and shaky iterability of the cultural images of women as passive and impotent bodies. These externalized and projected male images of female subjectivity are an attempt to master them through vision, but these images always knock the door of male subjectivity.
Silverman argues that classic cinema enables this male projection of lack onto women, and that it develops several strategies to face the return of the repressed: disavowal, fetishism, voyeurism and sadism. The confinement of women as lack is accompanied by the exclusion of political rights and symbolic power. In this way, “she is obliged to absorb the male subject’s lack as well as her own.” (Silverman, p. 31).
The main project of Silverman in her book The Acoustic Mirror: The Female Voice in Psychoanalysis and Cinema (1988) is to demonstrate that Hollywood not only requires that female bodies stand in for lack and passivity, but also the female(s) voice(s). While the male voice is produced as proximate to the cinematic apparatus, the female voice is constructed as unproductive, isolated, and incoherent. And if Hollywood is obsessed with female bodies it is with female screams and tears as well.
“Women and Film: A discussion of Feminist aesthetics” is a dialogue basically about female spectatorships. B. Ruby Rich asks: “How does one formulate an understanding of a structure that insists on our absence even in the face of our presence?” (p. 116) She argues that a focus on reception is more promising that one exclusive to the production of images, because reception opens the door for critique.
Mary Ann Doane’s “Film and the Masquerade: Theorizing the Female Spectator” explores some resemblances between certain theories of the image and psychoanalytic theories of femininity. Both give a special place to female subjectivity as an object to be scrutinized, but exclude them from the access to the system. This is “a writing in images of the woman but not for her. For she is the problem.” (Doane, p. 75). In this context, she asks: what about the female spectator? Doane, follows Mulvey, in recognizing that for the female spectator there are two possibilities: a masochistic identification with the female character, or a “transvestite” identification with the male character. For Doane, what she calls “female transvestism” in an androcentric context is something expected from women and their alleged mobile gender identifications. She relates this to the notion of femininity as a masquerade. This notion of femininity as masquerade can allow some mobility to female subjects beyond patriarchal norms. While Doan’s concern about female spectatorship and a not esentializing notion of masquerade is very attractive, I found her facile use of transvestites and transgender subjects as metaphors for mobility very problematic. Doane doesn’t take into account the economic, political, legal and policing constraints that transgender subjects face on daily basis. Arguing, in effect, that male transgendered individuals have an easy life in a society in which anything is better than to be a woman. Of course the omission of even the possibility of thinking about the materiality of transgender subjects is not something exclusive to Doane’s argument. It is far more extensive in feminist film theory, which is in effect tributary of very heteronormative notions of sexual difference.
Tania Modleski’s “The Master’s Doll House: Rear Window” is a revision of some of the premises of Mulvey’s famous essay. Modleski critiques the dichotomist structure of the positions allowed by “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema”. She explores one of Hitchcock’s movies to which Mulvey makes reference (“Rear Window”), and against Mulvey argues for a sense of agency for the female protagonist of the movie, Lisa. At the same time, Modleski stresses the failures, lacks and incompetence of the male leading character, Jeff. She then extends this lack, associated with femininity in androcentric contexts, to male audiences and spectatorships. Modleski implicitly argues for a more dynamic and mobile thinking about identitarian, cinematic and spectatorial positions.
Until now I have considered some of the debates around some implications of Mulvey’s essay in terms of gender and sexuality. But what about race? Manthia Diawara in “Black Spectatorship: Problems of Identification and Resistance” argues for a less totalizing thinking on spectatorial identifications. He recognizes that not all male subjects are constructed as coherent, active, or as masters of images and worlds. In fact, black and racialized male subjects can occupy more stigmatized positions than white female subjects. Diawara is creating an analogy between race and gender in order to produce a more complex elaboration around film. But in his essay, black female subjects are almost absent. For me this evidences a similarity between Diawara’s critique and the white feminist critiques previously summarized in that it shows the influence of identity politics in film theory. First, feminist critiques show that canonical film theory was indebted by androcentric and patriarchal values, reasoning and epistemologies. Anti-racist critiques like Diawara’s one stress the invisibility and naturalization of whiteness in this canon. But there is a problem in the simile (“race is like gender” and vice versa): It constructs race, gender and other axes of subjection as mutually exclusive, even when it acknowledges similarities or coincidences among them. It is for that reason that sometimes we have the impression that we are reading very different texts about very different bodies; bodies that are essentially gendered on the one hand, and on the other, bodies that are almost exclusively racialized.
It is precisely because it allows more intersectional readings that assemblage different matrixes of power that I found Robert Stam and Louise Spence’s “Colonialism, Racism and Representation” very compelling. They also argue for aberrant readings that go against the hegemonic and normative discourses. Aberrant readings also make reference to the different audiences and their diverse readings and gazes. Stam and Spence construct an important anti-colonizing argument that I think is very helpful in order to theorize the gaps of identitarian politics within film theory.






